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From the May 2017 issue of GCM magazine:

Regional trends in land use and environmental practices on U.S. golf courses, Part 2

Changes in land use over the past 10 years have led to reduced acreages for maintained turf, overseeded turf and irrigated turf. These practices are the basis for lowering the environmental footprint of the golf industry.

Figure 1. Distribution of 2015 survey responses across the survey’s seven agronomic regions.

Wendy Gelernter, Ph.D., and Larry Stowell, Ph.D.

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The April issue of Golf Course Management documented the progress in land allocation and maintenance made over the past decade by U.S. golf courses (1). In this follow-up article, we look in depth at the country’s seven agronomic regions to see how each has approached land use practices over the past 10 years, and to consider the factors that have influenced their actions.

Land use, environmental practices and the Golf Course Environmental Profile

In 2006, the GCSAA and the Environmental Institute for Golf (EIFG) initiated a project to conduct a series of five surveys to document water use, fertilizer use, pest management practices, energy use, environmental stewardship and property profiles. Known as the Golf Course Environmental Profile, the results provided a baseline of information for use in the management of golf facilities, as well as an important tool for communicating within the golf course industry and with regulators, legislators and the general public. Results were published in scientific journals (2-6) and online on the GCSAA website.

In fall 2014, the second phase of the Golf Course Environmental Profile began with a follow-up set of surveys that mirrored the previous series. The surveys were conducted by GCSAA and funded by the EIFG through sponsorship by the United States Golf Association. This land use survey is the fourth survey to be released in the second phase.

Figure 2. Trends in median acreage of 18-hole golf facilities, 2005 vs. 2015. The asterisk indicates a statistically significant difference between 2005 and 2015 values.

How it was done

An initial email invitation, which included a link to an online survey, was sent to 12,951 U.S. golf courses in March 2016, followed by three email reminders. A total of 1,707 completed surveys were received, representing an 11.3% response, which was somewhat lower than the 18.6% response from the 2005 survey.

PACE Turf and the National Golf Foundation were contracted to develop and implement the survey, as well as to analyze, summarize and publish reports on the data.

To gain insights into survey data, respondents were stratified by agronomic region (Figure 1), as well as by golf course type, number of holes and green fees.

North Central region

Facility size

Facility size in the North Central region was the largest in the nation, with a median of 159 acres for the average 18-hole facility in 2015 (Figure 2). Facility size has not changed significantly since 2005. These larger acreages may be a function of lower real estate values in this region, which has fewer large, expensive cities than other areas of the country.

Total facility acreage for all golf courses in this region has seen a 7.1% decrease in projected acres since 2005 because the region has suffered a net loss of 214 facilities since 2005 (Table 1).

Table 1. Projected acreage and number of facilities for the North Central region, 2005 vs. 2015.

Maintained turf

Maintained turf acreage for the average 18-hole facility was significantly lower in 2015 than it was in 2005 (Figure 3). Total maintained turf acreage for all golf courses in the North Central region has decreased 10% since 2005 (Table 1). This decline, which was the largest in absolute acreage among all agronomic regions, was due to the reduced number of facilities in the region (accounting for approximately 56% of the acreage reduction), as well as to voluntary reductions in maintained turf acreage (accounting for approximately 44% of the loss).

In 2015, the 18-hole facility acreage for greens, tees and, especially, roughs in the North Central region was larger than for the average U.S. facility. Fairways, however, were among the smallest in the country (Table 2). Since 2005, the size of greens and tees has increased significantly, and the size of practice areas and clubhouse grounds has decreased significantly for 18-hole facilities. The size of fairways and roughs did not change significantly (Table 2).

Irrigated acreage

Irrigated acreage made up 62% of the acreage of maintained turf (64.4 of 104 acres) in the North Central region (Figure 4). Only the Northeast region had fewer acres of irrigated turf. The region’s cool and wet climate allows golf courses to irrigate fewer acres of maintained turf (Table 3).

Table 3. Variation in North Central region climate. Temperature and rainfall values are based on 30-year normal annual average temperatures.

Turf types

The dominant turf type was Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), with creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera) and annual bluegrass (Poa annua) a distant second and third, respectively (Table 4). The large majority of greens and tees were creeping bentgrass, while fairways were roughly divided among Kentucky bluegrass, creeping bentgrass and annual bluegrass. Kentucky bluegrass was, by far, the dominant turf type on roughs.

Non-turf acreage

Water feature acreage was slightly larger than that for the average 18-hole facility (Table 5). As for most other regions of the country, the majority of water feature acreage was devoted to open water, followed by wetlands.
Natural feature acreage made up 10.9% of the total facility, and at 17.4 acres per 18-hole facility, was somewhat smaller than the national average (Table 5). Forests were the most common type of acreage for natural features.
Bunker, building and parking lot acreage was similar to that for the nation overall (Table 5).
Cart path size in linear feet was the second lowest in the country (Table 6).
Impervious surfaces in this region made up the lowest percentage of facility acreage in the nation (Table 7).

Table 8. Projected acreage and number of facilities for the Northeast region, 2005 vs. 2015.

Northeast region

Facility size

Facility size was slightly smaller than the national average, with a median 144 acres for the average 18-hole facility in 2015 (Figure 2). Facility size has not changed significantly since 2005.

In terms of total facility acreage for all golf courses in this region, there has been a 6.4% decrease in projected acres since 2005. This was due to the net loss of 62 facilities (Table 8).

Maintained turf

Maintained turf acreage for the average 18-hole facility was significantly lower in 2015 than it was in 2005, and was among the lowest acreage of maintained turf in the nation (Figure 3). In the Northeast region, total maintained turf acreage for all golf courses has declined 10% since 2005 (Table 8). The decline in acreage was primarily due to voluntary reductions in maintained turf acreage, which accounted for approximately 76% of the reduced acreage. The reduced number of facilities in the region accounted for approximately 24% of this drop.

Table 9. Variation in Northeast region climate. Temperature and rainfall values are based on 30-year normal annual average temperatures.

In 2015, the 18-hole facility acreage for most maintained turf features was smaller than for the average U.S. facility, and tees, fairways, practice areas and nurseries were the smallest in the nation. Since 2005, the size of fairways and clubhouse grounds for 18-hole facilities have decreased significantly, and the size of greens has increased significantly (Table 2).

Irrigated turf

Irrigated turf acreage was responsible for 60% (52.9 of 87.7 acres) of all maintained turf for the average 18-hole facility (Figure 4). This was the lowest acreage of irrigated turf in the nation. This practice was aided by the region’s cool and wet climate (Table 9).

Turf types

Turf types were dominated by Kentucky bluegrass, with creeping bentgrass and annual bluegrass a distant second and third, respectively (Table 4). The large majority of greens, tees and fairways were creeping bentgrass, while roughs were dominated by Kentucky bluegrass.

Non-turf acreage

Water feature acreage was lower than that for the average 18-hole facility (Table 5). As for most other regions of the country, the majority of water feature acreage was devoted to open water, followed by wetlands.
Natural feature acreage made up 15% of the total facility, and at 12.6 acres per 18-hole facility, was somewhat smaller than the national average (Table 5). Forests were the most common type of acreage for natural features.
Bunker, building and parking lot acreage was similar to that for the nation overall (Table 5).
Cart path size in linear feet was the lowest in the country. This value has decreased significantly since 2005 (Table 6).
Impervious surfaces in this region were similar to the national average for percentage of facility acreage (Table 7).

Table 10. Projected acreage and number of facilities for the Pacific region, 2005 vs. 2015.

Pacific region

Facility size

Facility size, which has decreased significantly since 2005 (Figure 2), was the smallest in the nation, with a median 127 acres for the average 18-hole facility in 2015. The Pacific region was the only region where this occurred. These smaller acreages may be a function of higher real estate values in this region, which has fewer large, expensive cities than other areas of the country.

In terms of total facility acreage for all golf courses in this region, projected acres have decreased 7.9% since 2005. This was due to voluntary reductions in facility acreage (Figure 2) and, to a lesser extent, the net loss of 15 facilities since 2005.

Maintained turf

Maintained turf acreage for the average 18-hole facility in the Pacific region was significantly lower in 2015 than it was in 2005, and was the lowest acreage of maintained turf in the nation (Figure 3). Total maintained turf acreage for all golf courses in this region has decreased 11% since 2005. Voluntary reductions in maintained turf acreage accounted for 78% of the reduced acreage, and the net loss of 15 facilities in the region also contributed to the decline (Table 10).

Table 11. Variation in Pacific region climate. Temperature and rainfall values are based on 30-year normal annual average temperatures.

In 2015, the 18-hole facility acreage for all turf features except fairways was smaller in the Pacific region than in the rest of the U.S. Since 2005, the size of roughs has decreased significantly for 18-hole facilities (Table 2).

Irrigated turf

Irrigated turf acreage was responsible for 88% (75 of 84.8 acres) of all maintained turf on 18-hole facilities in the Pacific region (Figure 4). Low rainfall in portions of this region was responsible for the higher percentage of irrigated turf (Table 11).

Turf types

Turf types were dominated by annual bluegrass, with perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) coming in second (Table 4). Annual bluegrass was the major turf type used on all turf features.

Non-turf acreage

Water feature acreage for the average 18-hole facility in the Pacific region was the second lowest in the nation (Table 5). As for most other regions of the country, the majority of water feature acreage was devoted to open water.
Natural feature acreage made up 13.9% of the total facility, and at 17.6 acres per 18-hole facility, was somewhat smaller than the national average (Table 5). Forests were the most common type of acreage for natural features.
Bunker, building and parking lot acreage was similar to that for the nation overall (Table 5).
Cart path size in linear feet was somewhat higher than the national average. This value has not changed significantly since 2005 (Table 6).
Impervious surfaces in this region made up a relatively high percentage of facility acreage compared with the national average (Table 7).

Southeast region

Facility size

Table 12. Projected acreage and number of facilities for the Southeast region, 2005 vs. 2015.

Facility size in the Southeast region was the same as that for the nation overall, with a median 150 acres for the average 18-hole facility in 2015. Facility size has not changed significantly since 2005 (Figure 2).

Total facility acreage for all golf courses in this region has seen only a negligible decrease since 2005, even though the region has suffered a large decrease in the number of facilities since that time (Table 12).

Maintained turf

Maintained turf acreage for the average 18-hole facility was slightly lower than for the nation overall. This acreage has not changed significantly since 2005 (Figure 3). Total maintained turf acreage for all golf courses in this region has decreased 5.4% since 2005 (Table 12). This was due almost exclusively to the reduced number of facilities in the region, given that voluntary changes in maintained turf acreage were not significant (Table 2).

In 2015, the 18-hole facility acreage for all turf features was similar to the U.S. average. Since 2005, only clubhouse grounds have seen a significant decrease in maintained turf acreage (Table 2).

Table 13. Variation in Southeast region climate. Temperature and rainfall values are based on 30-year normal annual average temperatures.

Irrigated turf

Of all the maintained turf on an 18-hole facility in the Southeast region, 91% (84.1 of 92.8 acres) was irrigated (Figure 4). High temperatures and a year-round growing season in this region were responsible for the higher percentage of irrigated turf acres (Table 13).

Overseeded turf acreage

Overseeded turf acreage has been reduced by more than 37,000 acres, or 55%, since 2005 (Table 14, Figure 5). Perennial ryegrass was, by far, the most commonly used overseeded turf type on all turf features except greens, where rough bluegrass (Poa trivialis) was more prevalent.

Turf types

Turf types were dominated by bermudagrass (Cynodon species) (Table 4). It was the leading turf type for all features except nurseries, where creeping bentgrass was more common.

Non-turf acreage

Water feature acreage was much greater than that for the average 18-hole facility nationally (Table 5). As for most other regions of the country, the majority of water feature acreage was devoted to open water.
Natural feature acreage made up 8.4% of the total facility, and at 12.7 acres per 18-hole facility, was the smallest acreage in the nation (Table 5). Forests were the most common type of acreage for natural features.
Bunker, building and parking lot acreage was similar to that for the nation overall (Table 5).
Cart path size in linear feet was somewhat higher than the national average. This value has not changed significantly since 2005 (Table 6).
Impervious surfaces in this region made up a relatively high percentage of facility acreage compared with the national average (Table 7).

Table 15. Projected acreage and number of facilities for the Southwest region, 2005 vs. 2015.

Southwest region

Facility size

Facility size was smaller for the Southwest region than for the nation overall, with a median 141 acres for the average 18-hole facility in 2015. Facility size has not changed significantly since 2005 (Figure 2).

Total facility acreage for all golf courses in the Southwest has decreased 6.9% since 2005, because the region has suffered a net loss of 29 facilities since that time (Table 15).

Maintained turf

Maintained turf acreage for the average 18-hole facility was lower than for the nation overall. This region has had the largest percentage decrease in maintained turf acres for 18-hole facilities nationally since 2005 (Figure 3). Total maintained turf acreage for all golf courses in this region has declined 12% since 2005. A drop in the number of facilities in the region (Table 15) accounted for approximately 20% of the reduced acreage, but, more significantly, voluntary reductions in maintained turf acreage accounted for 80% of the reduced acreage.

In 2015, the sizes of greens and tees on 18-hole facilities were comparable to those for the nation overall, while fairways were slightly larger and roughs were smaller than the national average. The sizes of fairways and roughs for 18-hole facilities have decreased significantly since 2005 — the largest percentage decreases in the nation (Table 2).

Table 16. Variation in Southwest region climate. Temperature and rainfall values are based on 30-year normal annual average temperatures.

Irrigated turf acreage

In the Southwest region, 100% of maintained turf was irrigated (Figure 4). High temperatures, low rainfall and a year-round growing season in this region were responsible for the higher percentage of irrigated turf acres (Table 16).

Overseeded turf acreage

Overseeded turf acreage has been reduced by more than 15,000 acres, or 36%, since 2005 (Table 14, Figure 5). Perennial ryegrass was, by far, the most widely used turf type for overseeding on all turf features except greens, where rough bluegrass (Poa trivialis) was more common.

Turf types

Turf types were dominated by bermuda-
grass (Table 4), although many different turf types were used in this region. On greens, preferred turf types were divided roughly evenly between annual bluegrass, creeping bentgrass and bermudagrass. For all other turf features except nurseries, bermudagrass was favored, while creeping bentgrass was preferred for nurseries.

Non-turf acreage

Water feature acreage was the smallest in the nation for the average 18-hole facility (Table 5). As for most other regions of the country, the majority of water feature acreage was devoted to open water.
Natural feature acreage made up 13.3% of the total facility, and at 18.8 acres per 18-hole facility, was smaller than the national average (Table 5). Unlike most other regions, in the Southwest, deserts had the highest acreage of all natural features.
Bunker, building and parking lot acreage was similar to that for the nation overall (Table 5).
Cart path size in linear feet was somewhat lower than the national average. This value has decreased significantly since 2005 (Table 6).
Impervious surfaces in this region were similar to the national average for percentage of facility acreage (Table 7).

Table 17. Projected acreage and number of facilities for the Transition region, 2005 vs. 2015.

Transition region

Facility size

Facility size in the Transition region was slightly larger than for the nation overall, with a median 156 acres for the average 18-hole facility in 2015. There has been no significant change in facility size since 2005 (Figure 2).

Total facility acreage for all golf courses in the region has seen a 4.9% decrease in acres since 2005, which was due to the net loss of 157 facilities (Table 17).

Maintained turf

Maintained turf acreage for the average 18-hole facility was among the largest in the nation. Maintained turf acreage for 18-hole facilities has not changed significantly since 2005 (Figure 3). Total maintained turf acreage for all golf courses in this region has dropped 7% since 2005. A decrease in the number of facilities in the region (Table 17) accounted for 82% of the reduced acreage.

In 2015, the acreage for most turf features on 18-hole facilities was comparable to that for the nation overall. Roughs, however, were among the largest in the country. Since 2005, there have been no significant changes in the size of any turf features on 18-hole facilities in the region (Table 2).

Table 18. Variation in Transition region climate. Temperature and rainfall values are based on 30-year normal annual average temperatures.

Irrigated turf

In the Transition region, 75% of maintained turf was irrigated (Figure 4). Warmer temperatures and a longer growing season in this region were responsible for the higher percentage of irrigated turf acres (Table 18).

Overseeded turf acreage

Overseeded turf acreage has been reduced by more than 12,000 acres, or 64%, since 2005 (Table 14, Figure 5). Perennial ryegrass was, by far, the most commonly used overseeded turf type on all turf features except greens, where creeping bentgrass was more prevalent.

Turf types

Turf types were dominated by bermuda-
grass (Table 4). However, creeping bentgrass was most the popular choice for use on greens and in nurseries.

Non-turf acreage

Water feature acreage was slightly smaller than that for the average 18-hole facility (Table 5). As for most other regions of the country, the majority of water feature acreage was devoted to open water.
Natural feature acreage made up 9.8% of the total facility, and at 15.3 acres per 18-hole facility, was smaller than the national average (Table 5). Forests had the highest acreage of all natural features.
Bunker, building and parking lot acreage was similar to that for the nation overall (Table 5).
Cart path size in linear feet was the greatest in the country. This value has not changed significantly since 2005 (Table 6).
Impervious surfaces in this region made up a slightly higher percentage of facility acreage than impervious surfaces for the nation as whole (Table 7).

Table 19. Projected acreage and number of facilities for the Upper West/Mountain region, 2005 vs. 2015.

Upper West/Mountain Region

Facility size

Facility size was similar to that for the nation overall, with a median 149 acres for the average 18-hole facility in 2015. There has been no significant change in facility size since 2005 (Figure 2).

In the Upper West/Mountain region, total facility acreage for all golf courses has remained the same since 2005, partly because this was the only region where the number of facilities has increased since that time (Table 19).

Maintained turf

Maintained turf acreage for the average 18-hole facility was similar to that for the
nation overall. For 18-hole facilities, maintained turf acreage has not changed significantly since 2005 (Figure 3). Total maintained turf acreage for all golf courses in this region has not changed since 2005, even though this region was the only area of the nation where the number of facilities has grown since 2005 (Table 19). The stability of the maintained turf acreage is, therefore, exclusively due to voluntary reductions in maintained turf acreage for the region.

In 2015, the 18-hole facility acreage was larger for fairways and smaller for roughs than in the nation overall. Since 2005, the size of fairways, practice areas and clubhouse grounds has decreased for 18-hole golf facilities. The acreage for all other features did not change significantly (Table 2).

Table 20. Variation in Upper West/Mountain region climate. Temperature and rainfall values are based on 30-year normal annual average temperatures.

Irrigated turf acreage

Irrigated turf acreage was responsible for 96% of maintained turf (Figure 4) in this region. Warmer temperatures and a longer growing season accounted for the higher percentage of irrigated turf acres (Table 20).

Turf types

Turf types were dominated by Kentucky bluegrass (Table 4). On greens, however, creeping bentgrass was most popular.

Non-turf acreage

Water feature acreage was slightly smaller than that for the average 18-hole facility (Table 5). As for most other regions of the country, the majority of water feature acreage was devoted to open water.
Natural feature acreage made up 13% of the total facility, and at 19.4 acres per 18-hole facility, was smaller than the national average (Table 5). In the Upper West/Mountain region, unlike most regions, native grasslands had the highest acreage of all natural area features.
Bunker, building and parking lot acreage was similar to that for the nation overall (Table 5).
Cart path size in linear feet was smaller than the national average. This value has not changed significantly since 2005 (Table 6).
Impervious surfaces in this region made up a slightly smaller percentage of facility acreage than impervious surfaces in the nation as whole (Table 6).

Funding

The second phase of the Golf Course Environmental Profile was conducted by GCSAA through its philanthropic organization, the Environmental Institute for Golf, and was funded by the United States Golf Association.

Acknowledgments

The information on which this article was based was published online in the journal Crop, Forage and Turfgrass Management as “Documenting trends in land use characteristics and environmental stewardship programs on U.S. golf courses” by Wendy Gelernter, Larry Stowell, Mark Johnson and Clark Brown. doi: 10.2134/cftm2016.10.0066; Date posted: Feb. 7, 2017. The content in this article was used by permission of the Crop Science Society of America Inc., Madison, Wis., USA. The executive summary and full public report of the results of the second phase of the “Land Use Characteristics and Environmental Stewardship Programs on U.S. Golf Courses” survey are available online.

Literature cited

Gelernter, W., and L. Stowell. National trends in land use and environmental practices on U.S. golf courses, Part I. Golf Course Management 84(4):72-82.
Lyman, G.T., M.E. Johnson, G.A. Stacey and C.D. Brown. 2012a. Golf course environmental profile measures energy use and energy management practices. Applied Turfgrass Science doi:10.1094/ATS-2012-0228-01-RS
Lyman, G.T., M.E. Johnson, G.A. Stacey and C.D. Brown. 2012b. Golf course environmental profile measures pesticide use practices and trends. Applied Turfgrass Science doi:10.1094/ATS-2012-1220-01-RS
Lyman, G.T., C.S. Throssell, M.E. Johnson, G.A. Stacey and C.D. Brown. 2007. Golf course profile describes turfgrass, landscape and environmental stewardship features. Applied Turfgrass Science doi:10.1094/ATS-2007-1107-01-RS
Throssell, C.S., G.T. Lyman, M.E. Johnson, G.A. Stacey and C.D. Brown. 2009a. Golf course environmental profile measures nutrient use management and fertilizer restrictions, storage and equipment calibration. Applied Turfgrass Science doi:10.1094/ATS-2009-1203-01-RS
Throssell, C.S., G.T. Lyman, M.E. Johnson, G.A. Stacey and C.D. Brown. 2009b. Golf course environmental profile measures water use, source, cost, quality, and management and conservation strategies. Applied Turfgrass Science doi:10.1094/ATS-2009-0129-01-RS